Nigeria's Identifiable Ethnic Groups By O. Otitie

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria's social boundaries are often described as artificial. This characterisation is generally acceptable in the sense that certain ethnic groups and governmental societies were split and located within the colonial state territories of different European powers, following the 1884 Berlin Conference and the subsequent legal instruments. Thus, although Nigeria formally became one entity in 1914 after the amalgamation of the then northern and  southern protectorates along with Lagos, many members of different social groups found their kinsmen and friendly neighbours just outside Nigeria's political boundaries. Yet, peoples in the pre-colonial geographical region now occupied by Nigeria and her neighbours such as the  Cameroun, Chad, Niger and Benin Republics, were not only linked by blood or descent but also by trade and commerce, as well as by relations of friendship and conflict.

The above factors defined the nature of international relations in the region. People of the different nationalities were not totally strange to each other. Instead, there was something natural and common to most of the people found in this pre-colonial region. Thus, Chief Obafemi Awolowo's viewpoint that Nigeria is "a mere geographical expression" (Awolowo, 1947) can only still mean that one could not speak of Nigeria as a society with a national identification in the same sense as one could speak of say the Katsina emirate, or the kingdom of Benin or lfe. Awolowo argued that Nigeria, being a multi-national or polyethnic society, could not be regarded as one nation.          Top

THE PAST
In the very distant past, many of the peoples now located in Nigeria shared many social values and cultural traits. In this connection, Hambly (1935) refers to a substratum of African culture shared in common by peoples in the region of present-day Nigeria, particularly in its southern part. This suggests that many of these peoples main tained a high degree of homogeneity. Within the Nigerian region, there was also a history of long migrations and settlements with such a mixture of social and cultural relationships that it often became difficult to separate the people within these settlements into neat socio-cuttural groups.

In recognition of the above feature of the social-cultural arrangement in the region, Arikpo (1957) I asserted that early and long contacts between

peoples in the region promoted common understanding, shared fate and common commitments, it was I therefore possible for him to suggest the conclusion that "Nigeria is not an accident ... (and) not an artificial creation."

This perspective of a high degree of homogeneity and oneness in the region is further butttressed by the language argument. It should be noted that language is a critical part of a people's culture and a powerful instrument for preserving and transmitting values and systems from one generation to another.
Most Nigerian languages belong to three main language families. The first is the , Niger-Congo, with its subgroups, which include such languages as the Bariba, Birom, Busa, Chamba, Edo (including Bini and Urhobo), Efik (including Ibibio), Fulani, Idoma, lgbo, ljo (ljaw), Jukun, Kambari, Nupe, Tiv, Vere and Yoruba. The second major language family, the Afro-Asiatic, consists of Angas, Bachama, Bura, Hausa, Higi, Mergi, Shuwa and others. The third major language group is the Nilo-Saharan. It includes Dendi and Kanuri, among others. People who speak the different languages belonging to the Nigerian language families have lived together as neighbours for long periods under mutual socio-economic and ) socio-political influences as well as under language and cultural borrowing. This language classification , is important in postulating the universality of Nigeria's peoples. The acceptance of this kind of argument must modify any contention that Nigeria's past breaks up into many "pasts," since the distinction between such "pasts" would then be a superficial and comparatively recent one. Any pluralisation of the "past" may well apply to all old or new states that are plural societies (Otite, 1975). ' Nigeria's three language families or sociocultural units evolved, over centuries of diverse historical experiences in different geographical regions, into the more recent and complex heterogeneity of nations and cultures. At some point in time, states, ) empires and complex societies, developed. As Hodgkin (1960) points out,

 

a variety of links existed between the various states and people which were the predecessors of modern Nigeria: between Kanem-Bomu, the Hausa states, Nupe, the Jukun kingdom, the Emirates of Oyo and Benin, the Delta states and the loosely associated lbo communities. These relationship sometimes took the form of war and enslavement. But they expressed themselves also through diplomacy, the visits of wondering scholars, the diffusion of political and religious ideas, the borrowing of techniques and above all trade.

Hodgkin also analysed the rise and expansion of states, foreign religious incursions, slave trade and European political and economic activities, following a chronological order of seven historical periods from the eleventh to the nineteenth centuries. He argued that the societies and states which
dominated the pre-colonial region of Nigeria communicated amongst themselvesand also depended on one another. None was self-sufficient. In addition to their relations with one another, they were exposed, in varying degrees at different periods, to influences from farther afield including Mali and Gao, Egypt and the Maghreb, western Europe and North America. Similarly, it has been pointed out that until the arrival of the British, northern Nigeria was economically oriented towards Libya and Egypt.
Thus, while some peoples were brought together culturally and socially to look inward, others found it necessary to move outside the region now occupied by Nigeria for purposes mainly of trade and commerce. When universal religions such as Christianity and Islam were introduced into the Nigerian societies, other kinds of religio-cultural interests emerged which tended to incline the vari- ous peoples towards the organisation of new identities with others within and outside the region of Nigeria.
The preceding paragraphs indicate that societies and social groups within the Nigeria region were dynamic. None was static and none was an isolate unto itself. The peoples that shared in the oneness resulting from the original three language family groups have evolved, under different environments and changing circumstances, into diverse distinct groups in contemporary Nigeria.          

CONTEMPORARY DIVERSITY: DISTINGUISHING CRITERIA
Each of the culturally distinct groups in Nigeria today is an ethnic group. Ethnic groups are categories of people characterised by cultural criteria of symbols including language, value systems and normative behaviour, and whose members are anchored in a particular part of the new state territory (Otite, 1990). It is pertinent to bring out a few distinct features of this definition. The first is that an ethnic group is identified with a particular geographical part of the country; for example, the Ibibio of the south-eastern part, the ljo ((ljaw) and Urhobo of the delta area, the Kanuri of the north-eastern part and the Tiv of the middle belt area. Non-the- less, members of the ethnic groups concerned also live and possess landed-property, among other things, in territories outside their own.
Second, culture provides the main social marker of ethnic groups. Members of one ethnic group, for example the Bachama of Adamawa State or the Bini of Edo State, do things and organise their lives in a way that is different from those of the Kagoro of Kaduna State or the Fulani (Fulbe) who inhabit many of the northern States.
Certain components of culture, such as language and organisational forms, do overlap (examples are the languages of the Edo speaking peoples in the Delta, Edo and Rivers States, and the languages derived from Efik or Ibibio language in the Cross River and Akwa lbom States. Such groups of languages have many corresponding items. Yet, language is not a sole maker of an ethnic group. Speakers and non speakers of a language may or may not necessarily belong to the same ethnic group. The Yoruba speakers of the Igbo or Hausa language do not necessarily belong to the lgbo or Hausa ethnic group, and vice versa. But the lgbo non-speakers of the lgbo language still belong to the lgbo ethnic group.
Third, ail the distinct ethnic groups form inextricable parts of Nigeria. Each is encapsulated in a wider network of social relations provided by the new state. Within this framework, each group develops and manipulates its own mythology of descent, ritual beliefs and moral practices, while its members share an exclusive culture and normative behaviour. Members of each group share an identity which they use as a means of forging relationship within the political and economic spheres and in accessing resources in the new state. Thus, each group devices means of consolidating its boundaries sustained by myths and symbolism. Since each group co-exists with others in the new state, its 'social and cultural boundaries are frequently broken through interactions. Finally, each ethnic group in Nigeria is an interest group . It is a cultural expression of its projected kith-and-kin ideology.
Hence, members of one group regard themselves as "brothers" and "sisters," as members of the same "family," with the implied trust, reliability, mutual assistance, and defence whenever needed or solicited. , However, ethnic boundaries in Nigeria, as elsewhere, can be confusing and are manipulable. Thus, as Otite, (1990) noted, whereas most Nigerians from the northern parts of the country can speak the Hausa language and, therefore, pose and pass as Hausa in the southern parts, they resort to their ethnic identifications as Bassa, Kwanka, Migili, Ningi, Rurnada, Waja, Yergarn and Physical And Human Characteristics
lgbo or Hausa, or Yoruba, and appear in the appro- priate dress form, saved many Nigerians during the last civil war. In such cases, ethnic-symbolic markers become assets both for members and non members alike and, thereby, dilute the ethnic boundaries. Two other features need to be noted about the people of Nigeria. First, there are marginal people who are sandwiched between two larger ethnic groups. Such marginal societies, usually found in shatter belts, adopt cultural elements from both ethnic groups, for example in the mixture of con- cepts and language.
They exist at the periphery of either of the ethnic groups and their culture, especially language, differs somewhat from those of the two centres or core cultures. Examples of these societies are the Obiaruku and Orogun peoples whose cultures and languages integrate both Urhobo and Ukwani socio-cultural symbols in the Delta State with their linguistic continuities and dis- continuities. The second feature relates to the apparent extinction of some of the Nigerian peoples and their languages. Examples include the Ashaganna in Plateau State and Bolewa of Bauchi State. They have been reported to be nearly, if not totally, extinct, having been culturally absorbed by neighbouring larger groups. Thus, Nigeria has been characterised by a dynamic ethnic pluralism, involving the extinction of some groups and the evolution of new ones over the centuries. Currently, scholars have identified over 350 ethnic groups in Nigeria.
EMERGING NATIONAL CULTURE
Each ethnic group has its own identifiable way of life, mode of dress, values, food and food habits, cultural predispositions for members to do or not t
o do certain things, and its shared mechanisms or patterns of socialising its members.
Each group also has its systems of marriage and family organisation which are affected by the system of descent and, hence, the domination or parity of men and women in their societies. For example, whereas the Afikpo sub-group of the lgbo people trace descent through the female line, the Bini and Urhobo recognise the male line as the one through which descent may be reckoned. The Yakurr people trace descent through both the male and female lines. These various practices of male and female dominance and visibility in social organisations have different implications for the economic and political life of the people. Similarly, the culture of reverence for kings and chiefs, which features strongly among the Yoruba, Kanuri, Hausa and Bini, among other ethnic groups, is generally absent among the village group arrangement of the lgbo and others. Among the lgbo, few exceptions to the general rule are found, for examole. Onitsha. Osamari. Oauta. Aboh and the ancient Nri kingdoms. However, the feature of a common pool of cultural traits, which we referred to earlier, is gradually re-emerging, at least in principle.
There is a surviving practice of respect for parents and elders in all the cultures found in Nigeria. There is also the trait of communalism and altruism commonly demonstrated by most Nigerians. This is particularly in the rural areas and in places where traditional culture is maintained. Good examples of these are indigenous enclaves in the urban areas, such as the Oje of lbadan where the Yoruba culture is kept strongly, and the Sabo of lbadan and many urban centres in southern Nigeria where Hausa or Hausanised cultural practices are maintained. Kindness to others, especially strangers, and the attributes of hospitality, as well as sharing with and helping the needy, are also extant in many parts of Nigeria. Apart from the foregoing cultural practices, which help to smoothen the hardships of life especially during economic recessions and inflationary : crises, many Nigerians now share one another's ethnic cultural practices.
This is one result of a combination of factors brought about by the inextricable encapsulation of groups in one modem new state. Such factors include enhanced communication system, increased frequency of social and cultural interactions, and common political participation and socialisation within one country. ' Nigerians from different ethnic groups appreciate the diversity of cultural dances, dress forms, food, handicrafts, drumming, songs, farm implements and practices, and other traits. For example, many Nigerians eat eba, pounded yam, 'amala'and even usi (starch) and akpu that do not traditionally belong to their cultures. They enjoy the Efik 'Edikang-lkong', the Hausa and Fulani tuwo, the Urhobo ukodo and the lgbo pepper soup. Just as many Nigerian men wear the Hausa 'babanriga' and Yoruba full traditional dress (agbada), so do many Nigerian women now put on the Urhobo and Itshekiri george wrapper and blouse. Many Nigerians now speak languages other than their own and also marry from ethnic groups outside their own. In addition, theTee is an evolution of neu tral traits adopted from cultures outside Nigeria, and to which local traits adapted. For example, many musicians and drummers from different ethnic groups have adapted themselves and their styles to pop and disco music and, lately, rap music.
Thus, the emerging national culture in Nigeria is little more than a rag tag of sorts. Yet, it is still obvious when you see or meet a Nigerian in the midst of other Africans and, of course, non-Africans.         
CONCLUSION
Nigerian people and their cultures have common distant roots. Their "pasts" can be anchored on the heritage of the three main language families. Yet, subsequent diversities which resuited from NIGERIA exposures to different social, politico-economic and environmental circumstances, are now gradually narrowing, while common traits are evolving, fashioned by the growing interaction among the various people of Nigeria. In spite of this homogenising development, ethnic identities and ethnicity will persist, at least to the foreseeable future, as the different peoples organise and mobilise their exclusive cultural symbols as powerful means of gaining access to the nation's political and economic resources.           

UNEP Team Now in Nigeria: Jonathan to Implement Ogoniland Report

UNEP also highlighted that due to high rainfall in Ogoniland, any delay in cleaning up oil spills would worsen the current levels of contamination   

 UNEP representatives, led by Special Envoy Erik Solheim, will meet with top Government of Nigeria officials and other key partners this week in Abuja and Port Harcourt regarding the implementation of the environmental remediation proposed by UNEP in the Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland.

The August 2011 study - the most comprehensive assessment of its kind ever undertaken in the Niger Delta - found that oil contamination in Ogoniland, as a result of oil industry operations in the area since the late 1950s, is extensive and having a grave negative impact on the environment. The report called for establishing an "Ogoniland Environmental Restoration Authority" with initial funding of US$1 billion, in addition to implementing emergency measures to mitigate the ongoing harm to communities from the oil pollution.

FURTHER RESOURCES

• UNEP Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland
• UNEP Disasters and Conflicts

UNEP also highlighted that due to high rainfall in Ogoniland, any delay in cleaning up oil spills would worsen the current levels of contamination - rain would carry the oil across farmland and into creeks and the root zone, and subsequently kill crops and other plants.

In July 2012 the Government of Nigeria set up the Hydrocarbon Pollution Restoration Project (HYPREP) to implement the environmental clean-up in Ogoniland and conduct environmental assessments in other parts of Nigeria impacted by oil contamination.

Erik Solheim, with a core technical UNEP team, is meeting with key government officials, non-governmental organisations, and civil society representatives, in order to establish the next steps in assisting with the environmental clean-up.

"With regard to Ogoniland, the UN system is committed to supporting the government throughout the entire process of implementing the recommendations of the report. On behalf of UNEP, I look forward to coordinated and collaborative action with our Nigerian and international partners in addressing pollution in Ogoniland," said Solheim. "We can only ensure long-term environmental sustainability through dialogue, confidence and trust, and it is in this mindset that I lead the UNEP team here this week."

The environmental restoration of Ogoniland is possible, according to UNEP, but could take 25 to 30 years. Due to the wide extent of contamination in Ogoniland and nearby areas, and the varying degrees of degradation, there will not be one single clean-up technique appropriate for the entire area. Therefore a combination of approaches will need to be considered.

Continued delay in the implementation of the recommendations will not only undermine the livelihoods of the Ogoni communities, but will also cause the pollution footprint to expand. In the long run, the findings of the study itself will become dated, and therefore further assessments will be needed, causing additional delays. UNEP hopes to convey this sense of urgency to the stakeholders during this mission.

Notes to Editors

The Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland report is available online at: http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/OEA/UNEP_OEA.pdf. Site-specific fact sheets containing detailed information about 67 of the contaminated sites studied are also available at this website.

Erik Solheim, former Norwegian Minister of Environment and International Development, is currently Chairman of the Development Assistance Committee for the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Devlopment (OECD). He was appointed UNEP Special Envoy in January 2013 to deal with issues relating to UNEP's sub-programme for Disasters and Conflicts.

Map of Ogoniland, Federal Republic of Nigeria

For additional information please contact:

Nick Nuttall, UNEP Spokesperson and Head of Media (Nairobi) on Tel. +254 733632755


Source: UNEP

Biodiversity and Human Health

Report on Health and Biodiversity Demonstrates Human Health Benefits from Protecting Biodiversity za, feb 14, 2015

The report demonstrates that the relationship between biodiversity and human health is extensive and complex.

Biodiversity plays a complex role in disease emergence, with benefits in some contexts and threats to human health in others. Photo: Shutterstock/Egon Zitter

Montreal/Kolkata, 13 February 2015 - 

A ground-breaking report on biodiversity and health, launched today at the 14th World Congress on Public Health, in Kolkata, India, shows the significant contribution of biodiversity and ecosystem services to better human health.

The report, Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health, demonstrates that the relationship between biodiversity and human health is extensive and complex.

 It outlines the ways that the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity has positive impacts on human health, including through impacts on water and air quality, nutrition, non-communicable and infectious diseases, and medicines, among others "We hope this joint report will increase awareness and understanding not only of the intrinsic value of biodiversity, but also as a critical foundation for sustainable development, and for human health and well-being," said Dr. Maria Neira, WHO Director for Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants of Health. "In particular, it should serve as a useful reference for the definition of the sustainable development goals and the post-2015 development agenda, which represent a unique opportunity to promote integrated approaches to protect human and planetary health."Prepared by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) and the World Health Organization (WHO), the report features contributions from numerous partners and over 100 experts, including Bioversity International, COHAB Initiative, EcoHealth Alliance, Harvard School of Public Health, United Nations University, Wildlife Conservation Society's Health & Ecosystems: Analysis of Linkages and many others.

Braulio Ferreira de Souza Dias, Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity, and Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations, said "Despite the clear role that biodiversity plays for human health, and thus for the Sustainable Development Goals, this linkage is not being made in policy forums. Hopefully this new report will help shed some light on this critical issue."

The report provides specific examples of the relationship for a number of issue areas including: water, air quality and human health; biodiversity, food production and nutrition; microbial diversity and non-communicable disease; infectious diseases; medicines, including traditional medicine; physical, mental and cultural well-being; pharmaceuticals and biodiversity; climate change and disaster risk reduction; and sustainable consumption and production. Highlights of the report include:

Biodiversity, Food Production and Nutrition: Biodiversity is the basis for crops, livestock and farmed fish and other parts of agricultural production and aquaculture. Genetic diversity within these ensures continuing improvements in food production, allows adaptation to current needs and ensures adaptability to future ones including climate change. The loss of biodiversity in agro-ecosystems is increasing the vulnerability and reducing the sustainability of many production systems with negative effects on human health.

 The report also points out that a diversity of species, varieties and breeds, as well as wild food and medicinal sources (fish, plants, bushmeat, insects and fungi) underpins dietary diversity, good nutrition and health. For this reason, reduced access to and global declines in terrestrial, marine and freshwater systems will present major public health challenges for resource-dependent human populations, particularly in low- and middle- income countries. Some dietary patterns that offer substantial health benefits, such as diets characterised by reduced meat consumption could also reduce climate change and pressures on biodiversity.

Microbial Diversity and non-communicable diseases: Humans, like most living things, have a microbiota - ecological communities of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms that literally share our body space and outnumber our human cells ten to one. The majority of these microbes provide vital functions for human survival. The report points out that interaction with microbes present in the environment are an important part of the healthy maintenance of our human microbiota. Reduced contact of people with the natural environment and biodiversity, and biodiversity loss in the wider environment, leads to reduced diversity in the human microbiota, which itself can lead to immune dysfunction and disease. Considering microbial diversity as an ecosystem service provider may contribute to bridging the chasm between ecology and medicine/immunology, by considering microbial diversity in public health and conservation strategies aimed at maximising services obtained from ecosystems.

Infectious diseases: Biodiversity plays a complex role in disease emergence, with benefits in some contexts and threats to human health in others. Human changes to and degradation of ecosystems, such as modified landscapes, intensive agriculture and antimicrobial use, may increase the risk of infectious disease transmission. While areas of high biodiversity may, in some cases, contain a high number of potential pathogens and contribute to the spread of disease, in some contexts biodiversity may also serve as a protective factor for preventing or reducing exposure to infectious agents.

Conclusions: The report concludes with recommendation for health and biodiversity strategies. It calls for the creation of coherent cross-sectoral strategies that ensure that biodiversity and health linkages are widely recognized, valued, and reflected in national public health and biodiversity conservation policies. They also need to be coordinated with programs and plans of other relevant sectors. Their implementation could be a joint responsibility of ministries of health, environment and other relevant ministries responsible for environmental health programmes and national biodiversity strategies and action plans. In all cases, they should be developed and implemented with the involvement of local communities. Given the interconnected nature of these challenges, there is a need for policy makers to coordinate their responses. The report suggests that the solution lies in uniting work in social and natural sciences through integrative and interdisciplinary approaches such as the ecosystem, ecohealth, and One Health approach, in order to develop cooperation and mutual understanding that can lead to the production of knowledge and recommendations that can be used by policy makers and practitioners

The Executive Summary of the report is available online at: www.cbd.int/en/health/stateofknowledge

The full volume will be released in the weeks ahead and will be available at the above website.

For interviews, please contact: Cristina Romanelli: cristina.romanelli@cbd.int or by calling +1-514-865-6556; or

Diarmid-Campbell Lendrum: campbelllendrumd@who.int or Marina Maiero: maierom@who.int.

The World Health Organization (WHO)

WHO is the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system. It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends. In the 21st century, health is a shared responsibility, involving equitable access to essential care and collective defence against transnational threats. 

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in December 1993. The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty for the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of the components of biodiversity and the equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the use of genetic resources.

 With 194 Parties up to now, the Convention has near universal participation among countries. The Convention seeks to address all threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services, including threats from climate change, through scientific assessments, the development of tools, incentives and processes, the transfer of technologies and good practices and the full and active involvement of relevant stakeholders including indigenous peoples and local communities, youth, NGOs, women and the business community.

 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing are supplementary agreements to the Convention. The Cartagena Protocol, which entered into force on 11 September 2003, seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. To date, 169 Parties have ratified the Cartagena Protocol. The Nagoya Protocol aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies. It entered into force on 12 October 2014 and to date has been ratified by 59 Parties. 

SOURCE: UNEP

Alternative Fuel Vehicles: 85% ethanol powered

Vehicles on the Road – Did You Know? (Text Only)

See: Infographic version of this information

Conventional

• Gasoline Vehicle: Most vehicles use gasoline, including hybrids.
• Diesel Vehicle: Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is the primary highway diesel fuel produced today, and allows diesels to be cleaner. Diesel vehicles and engines can also use blends of ULSD and biodiesel.

Alternative

• FFV: Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) can use gasoline or E85 (a mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline). E85 can be found at over 2,000 stations nationwide.
• EV: You can charge your electric vehicle (EV) at one of over 7,000 public charging stations in the United States. You can also charge your EV at home. In fact, depending on how far you drive each day, you may never need to visit a station.
• PHEV: Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are powered with electricity and gasoline. How much gasoline you’ll use depends on how often you plug in, how far you drive, and the vehicle’s design.
• CNG Vehicle: Compressed natural gas (CNG) fueling station pumps look similar to gasoline pumps, but have specialized fittings for a leak-free connection to your natural gas vehicle.
• FCV: Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) use pressurized hydrogen, which you pump into your car through a special leak-free connection. The hydrogen powers a fuel cell, which then generates electricity to power the vehicle.

There are over 10,000 alternative fueling stations in the United States today. Visit the Alternative Fueling Station Locator Exitto find a station near you.

About Green Vehicles

What Makes a Vehicle Green?

EPA developed the Green Vehicle Guide to help you find information on vehicles that are more efficient and less polluting. Reducing vehicle emissions and increasing your fuel economy helps the environment and your wallet.

What Are My Options?

You're probably curious about all of the new vehicle technologies that you've seen or heard about lately. It seems like everyday there's a new ad on TV, or another neighbor cruising down your street in their high tech car.

It's true– there really are a wide variety of vehicles available today that can lower your greenhouse gas emissions, and save you money on fuel. So go ahead--Drive Green. Save Green.

Source: EPA

Scientist are Reporting High Methane Emission: As Jonathan Commission Power Plant

Methane leaks erode green credentials of natural gas

Losses of up to 9% show need for broader data on US gas industry’s environmental 

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• Rights & Permissions

David Zalubowski/AP Photo

Natural-gas wells such as this one in Colorado are increasingly important to the US energy supply.

Scientists are once again reporting alarmingly high methane emissions from an oil and gas field, underscoring questions about the environmental benefits of the boom in natural-gas production that is transforming the US energy system.

The researchers, who hold joint appointments with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the University of Colorado in Boulder, first sparked concern in February 2012 with a study¹ suggesting that up to 4% of the methane produced at a field near Denver was escaping into the atmosphere. If methane — a potent greenhouse gas — is leaking from fields across the country at similar rates, it could be offsetting much of the climate benefit of the ongoing shift from coal- to gas-fired plants for electricity generation.

Industry officials and some scientists contested the claim, but at an American Geophysical Union (AGU) meeting in San Francisco, California, last month, the research team reported new Colorado data that support the earlier work, as well as preliminary results from a field study in the Uinta Basin of Utah suggesting even higher rates of methane leakage — an eye-popping 9% of the total production. That figure is nearly double the cumulative loss rates estimated from industry data — which are already higher in Utah than in Colorado

“We were expecting to see high methane levels, but I don’t think anybody really comprehended the true magnitude of what we would see,” says Colm Sweeney, who led the aerial component of the study as head of the aircraft programme at NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder.

Whether the high leakage rates claimed in Colorado and Utah are typical across the US natural-gas industry remains unclear. The NOAA data represent a “small snapshot” of a much larger picture that the broader scientific community is now assembling, says Steven Hamburg, chief scientist at the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) in Boston, Massachusetts.

The NOAA researchers collected their data in February as part of a broader analysis of air pollution in the Uinta Basin, using ground-based equipment and an aircraft to make detailed measurements of various pollutants, including methane concentrations. The researchers used atmospheric modelling to calculate the level of methane emissions required to reach those concentrations, and then compared that with industry data on gas production to obtain the percentage escaping into the atmosphere through venting and leaks.

The results build on those of the earlier Colorado study¹ in the Denver–Julesburg Basin, led by NOAA scientist Gabrielle Pétron (see Nature 482, 139–140; 2012). That study relied on pollution measurements taken in 2008 on the ground and from a nearby tower, and estimated a leakage rate that was about twice as high as official figures suggested. But the team’s methodology for calculating leakage — based on chemical analysis of the pollutants — remains in dispute. Michael Levi, an energy analyst at the Council on Foreign Relations in New York, published a peer-reviewed comment² questioning the findings and presenting an alternative interpretation of the data that would align overall leakage rates with previous estimates.

Pétron and her colleagues have a defence of the Colorado study in press³, and at the AGU meeting she discussed a new study of the Denver–Julesburg Basin conducted with scientists at Picarro, a gas-analyser manufacturer based in Santa Clara, California. That study relies on carbon isotopes to differentiate between industrial emissions and methane from cows and feedlots, and the preliminary results line up with their earlier findings.

A great deal rides on getting the number right. A study⁴ published in April by scientists at the EDF and Princeton University in New Jersey suggests that shifting to natural gas from coal-fired generators has immediate climatic benefits as long as the cumulative leakage rate from natural-gas production is below 3.2%; the benefits accumulate over time and are even larger if the gas plants replace older coal plants. By comparison, the authors note that the latest estimates from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggest that 2.4% of total natural-gas production was lost to leakage in 2009.

To see if that number holds up, the NOAA scientists are also taking part in a comprehensive assessment of US natural-gas emissions, conducted by the University of Texas at Austin and the EDF, with various industry partners. The initiative will analyse emissions from the production, gathering, processing, long-distance transmission and local distribution of natural gas, and will gather data on the use of natural gas in the transportation sector. In addition to scouring through industry data, the scientists are collecting field measurements at facilities across the country. The researchers expect to submit the first of these studies for publication by February, and say that the others will be complete within a year.

In April, the EPA issued standards intended to reduce air pollution from hydraulic-fracturing operations — now standard within the oil and gas industry — and advocates say that more can be done, at the state and national levels, to reduce methane emissions. “There are clearly opportunities to reduce leakage,” says Hamburg.

Source: Nature

Study finds relatively low emissions of methane from major US gas fields: The Reverse is the Case in Nigeria Gas Field

Study finds relatively low emissions of methane from major US gas fields

After a series of alarming reports, scientists estimate leak rate of about 1% for three major US gas formations.

• Jeff Tollefson

19 February 2015

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Rights & Permissions

Chuck Anderson/EESI/Penn State

Natural gas is pumped from the Marcellus shale formation in Tioga County, Pennsylvania.

Data show that methane emissions from major natural-gas fields in the eastern and central United States are relatively low, suggesting that overall methane emissions from gas production may not be as high as feared.

Total methane emissions from three regions — the Haynesville, Fayetteville and Marcellus formations — average about 1% of the gas produced there. That is roughly in line with US government estimates and lower than similar measurements for older fields in the West, according to a study published on 18 February in the Journal of Geophysical Research¹.

These formations are responsible for roughly 20% of the total US natural-gas production, and 50% of shale-gas production, which relies on hydraulic-fracturing techniques

“It’s good news for the atmosphere and for the industry’s bottom line,” says lead author Jeff Peischl, an atmospheric chemist at the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder. His team used an instrument-equipped aircraft to monitor emissions over the formations.

Previous research² has estimated that US methane emissions could be 1.5 times official estimates. Higher emissions during natural gas production decreases the climate benefits of shifting from coal to cleaner-burning natural gas.

Experts credit Peischl and his team's study with providing new data on important gas-producing regions, but cautioned against extrapolating too much from a snapshot of emissions at any particular location. “We have to remember that this is one study in what is now becoming a large body of scientific literature,” says Steven Hamburg, chief scientist at the Environmental Defense Fund, which is based in New York City. The advocacy group is participating in a series of studies into methane emissions from the natural-gas sector.

Gas leaks

Peischl's team collected atmospheric data on methane and other pollutants in 2013, and then calculated methane emissions by comparing concentrations of pollutants both above and upwind of the natural-gas production sites. They estimated that 1.1% of the natural gas produced in the three fields is leaking into the atmosphere; this figure is similar to calculations based on industry data and emissions estimates from the US Environmental Protection Agency.

Earlier studies³ suggested that methane emissions could account for about 4% of the total production at an older field in Colorado and significantly more in two other older fields. Peischl says that the lower numbers in the eastern US shale-gas fields could be attributable in part to the age of the infrastructure and differences in the types of natural gas and other hydrocarbons produced.

The emissions calculated for two of the regions — the Haynesville formation on the border of Texas and Louisiana and the Fayetteville formation in Arkansas — registered as high as 2.1% and 2.8% of the total gas produced at those sites, respectively. This is still well above what would be expected on the basis of federal emissions inventories. By contrast, the Marcellus formation, which covers several northeastern states, came in sharply lower, at 0.18–0.41% of total production.  

“If that’s really true, it would be worth investigating why,” says Steven Wofsy, an atmospheric scientist at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. “This is a good study, but one would want to be cautious about the results.”

Hamburg says the key is to drill down into details and understand where the emissions are coming from. “Then we can get into a constructive debate about how we can reduce those emissions " he says.

Source :Nature.com

A flying Car: The Power of Imagination

Are self-flying cars on the horizon?

A company which wants to introduce flying cars says its first model, the Transition, should be available commercially in 2016.

Boston based company Terrafugia says it has overcome technical difficulties that saw the firm lose favour with some investors who had expected aircraft sales to begin in 2012.

Chief executive Carl Dietrich told BBC Click's Dan Simmons the company was also developing a vertical take-off and landing aircraft, which they expect to be available in eight to 10 years.

Mr Dietrich explained he wanted to transform personal transportation and offer the public the chance to fly to where they need to go with minimal tuition.

Source: BBC.com/Click 

Building a Plane Without Formal Education

Oxfam director, plane maker, saving girls

Outlook

As a teenager Winnie Byanyima fled to the UK, escaping from the repressive regime of Idi Amin in her native Uganda. She arrived with 300 dollars in cash - which turned out to be fake. But Winnie didn't let that stop her. She graduated in aeronautical engineering - went back to Uganda to join the resistance - and ended up as an MP. After working with the African Union and the United Nations, she's now become the first African director of the charity Oxfam.

"Lucian" is a homeless man from Romania who won the lottery in Sweden. Two months ago he was begging and living on the streets. Then he bought a scratch card and won a car. He was able to trade it in for 210,000 Swedish Krone - about 25,000 US dollars - in cash. And now he's moved back to Romania to rejoin his family.

Sister Rosemary Nyirumbe is a Catholic nun who supports girls who were victims of the Lord's Resistance Army, which terrorised the people of northern Uganda for over 20 years. Sister Rosemary restores the girls' self esteem and gives them a career by teaching them sewing at the Saint Monica Girls' Tailoring Centre in Gulu, Uganda.

George Mel from South Sudan has built a plane in his backyard. Despite having no formal training and only basic tools and materials to work with, 23 year old George has constructed a petrol powered aircraft that he calls the "Ultralight". He also builds drones.

Image: Winnie Byanyima (credit Oxfam International), George Mel, Sister Rosemary Nyirumbe

Source: BBC outlook

Establishment of National Agency For The Great Green Wall ( GGW)

                       The Federal Government has approved the establishment of the Interim Office of the National Agency for the Great Green Wall, GGW.

It also approved the appointment of an acting Director General, DG, to man the agency.

The Vice President, Namadi Sambo, disclosed this during the 5th meeting of the National Council on the Great Green Wall held at the State House, Abuja.

“The GGW programme, an international project, is still at an initial stage in Nigeria,”
he said. “This is a people-oriented project by which President Goodluck Jonathan hopes to impact positively on the welfare of the citizenry.”

Mr. Sambo called for a strategic national plan and approach which would adequately address the socio-economic situation of the people.

This, he said, should include local community participation to ensure the success of the programme as similarly recorded in other countries such as Senegal and Mauritania.

Cautioning on the disbursement of approved project funds to the selected benefiting communities, the vice president stressed the need for such to be administered directly to the communities.

He called for proper documentation with which to approach development partners and demanded to be furnished with the detailed time-lines on the completion of the project by the consultants which would give indicators of actual progress.

Mr. Sambo appreciated the participation of the private sector in the project. He advised on the record of accurate figures of staff engaged in the project work and the purpose for which they are employed.
“More youths should be employed to guard the forests so that our investments will be fully protected,” he said.

The vice president constituted a committee saddled with the responsibility of drawing up a detailed operational manual and action plan that would be used to drive the project to a viable conclusion.

The committee consists of the Permanent Secretaries of the Office of the Secretary to the Government of the Federation, OSGF; Office of the Accountant General of the Federation, OAGF; Ecological Funds Office; and Ministries of Education, Environment and Finance.

The Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Environment is to Chair the committee.

Earlier, the Minister of Environment, Lawrencia Laraba-Mallam, in her presentation to the council, stated that one of the key objectives of the GGW programme was the generation of employment and that a total of 52,002 people had already been engaged in various activities

She said the ministry had also carried out sensitisation awareness campaigns and jingles in selected media and that preparation was presently in top gear towards for the president to flag the programme off.

Soliciting for additional funding to finance the 2015 work plan, the minister urged that the strategic plan drawn up for the project should be geared towards assisting the ministry in developing a suitable road map at this early stage.

On her part, the Minister of Water Resources, Sarah Ochekpe, advised the technical team to bring their expertise to bear in the preparation of documents on the project to enable prompt identification of challenges and subsequent attention to be given to such.

She also called for the capturing of youths, women and exact locations in future presentations.

Source: Premium Times.